The Effect of Different Antibiotics on Bacteria

The Effect of Different Antibiotics on Bacteria Antibiotics are medicines that kill bacteria. Bacteria can cause infections such as strep throat, ear infections, urinary tract infections, and sinus infections (sinusitis). There are many types of antibiotics. Each works a little differently and acts on different types of bacteria. Dont antibiotics cure everything? Antibiotics are powerful medicines, but they cannot cure everything. Antibiotics do not work against illnesses that are caused by a virus. They do not help illnesses such as: Common colds. Influenza (flu). Most cases of acute bronchitis. Most sore throats not caused by strep. Runny noses. These illnesses usually go away by themselves. If you take antibiotics when you do not need them, they may not work when you do need them. Each time you take antibiotics, you are more likely to have some bacteria that the medicine does not kill. Over time these bacteria change (mutate) and become harder to kill. The antibiotics that used to kill them no longer work. These bacteria are called antibiotic-resistant bacteria. These tougher bacteria can cause longer and more serious infections. In order to treat them you may need different, stronger antibiotics that cost more. A stronger antibiotic may have more side effects than the first medicine. Antibiotic-resistant bacteria also can spread to family members, children, and friends. Your community then will have a risk of getting an infection that is harder to cure and costs more to treat. Some antibiotics that doctors once prescribed to treat common infections no longer work. Taking antibiotics you do not need will not help you feel better, cure your illness, or keep others from being infected. On the other hand, take them when unnecessary may cause harmful side effects. Those side effects include: Nausea. Diarrhea. Stomach pain. When antibiotics kill the normal bacteria in your intestine and allow the C.difficilebacteria to grow, this causes diarrhea, fever, and belly cramps. In some rare cases, it can even cause death. This condition is known as Clostridium difficilecolitis or C. difficile colitis which is the swelling and irritation of the large intestine, or colon. Women may develop vaginal yeast infections from taking antibiotics. Rarely, antibiotics can cause a dangerous allergic reaction that requires emergency care. The right way to take antibiotic: Take it exactly as directed. Always take the exact amount that the label says to take. If the label says to take the medicine at a certain time, follow these directions. Take it for as long as prescribed. After the first few days of taking the medicine, you might feel better. However, it is important to keep taking the antibiotic as directed and usually until it is finish. Full prescription is always needed to get rid of those bacteria that are a bit stronger and able to survive the first few days of treatment. Bacteria that an antibiotic cannot kill (antibiotic-resistant bacteria) can develop if only part of an antibiotic prescription is being taken. Most importantly, leftover medicine must not be saved for the purpose of future use. Antibiotics are usually safe despites of all the side effects. Common side effects include nausea, diarrhea, and stomach pain. In women, antibiotics can lead to vaginal yeast infections. Some minor side effects are inevitable. In rare cases, antibiotics can cause a dangerous allergic reaction that requires emergency care. Antibiotics are among the most frequently prescribed medications in modern medicine. Antibiotics cure disease by killing or injuring bacteria. After the first antibiotic, penicillin which was accidentally been discovered from a mold culture, there are now over 100 different antibiotics available to cure minor discomforts as well as life-threatening infections.Although antibiotics are useful in a wide variety of infections, it is important to realize that antibiotics only treat bacterial infections. Antibiotics are useless against viral infections such as the common cold and fungal infections ringworm. Types of Antibiotics Although there are well over 100 antibiotics, the majority come from only a few types of drugs. These are the main classes of antibiotics. Penicillins such as penicillin andamoxicillin Cephalosporins such as cephalexin(Keflex) Macrolides such as erythromycin (E-Mycin), clarithromycin (Biaxin), andazithromycin (Zithromax) Fluoroquinolones such as ciprofloxacin(Cipro), levofloxacin (Levaquin), andofloxacin (Floxin) Sulfonamides such as co-trimoxazole (Bactrim) and trimethoprim (Proloprim) Tetracyclines such as tetracycline (Sumycin, Panmycin) Aminoglycosides such as gentamicin (Garamycin) and tobramycin (Tobrex) The use of right antibiotic is crucial as each antibiotic cures only certain types of infections but not all. Also, a person may have allergies that eliminate a class of antibiotic from consideration, such as a penicillin allergy which should not prescribe amoxicillin. Other factors may be considered when choosing an antibiotic. Medication cost, dosing schedule, and common side effects are often taken into account. Patterns of infection in your community may be considered too. In some cases, laboratories may help to decide which antibiotic to be used. Special techniques such as Gram stains may help narrow down which species of bacteria is causing infection. This is because certain bacterial species will take a stain while the others will not. Cultures may also be obtained. In this technique, a bacterial sample from infection is allowed to grow in a laboratory. The way bacteria grow or what they look like when they grow can help to identify the bacterial species. Cultures may also be tested to determine antibiotic sensitivities. A sensitivity list is the roster of antibiotics that kill a particular bacterial type. This list can be used to double check that you are taking the right antibiotic. Escherichia coli E. coli is a common type of bacteria that can get into food, like beef and vegetables. E. coli is short for the medical term Escherichia coli. The strange thing about these bacteria and lots of other bacteria is that theyre not always harmful to you. Theodor Escherich first described E. coli in 1885, as Bacterium coli commune, which he isolated from the feces of newborns. It was later renamed Escherichia coli, and for many years the bacterium was simply considered to be a commensal organism of the large intestine. It was not until 1935 that a strain of E. coli was shown to be the cause of an outbreak of diarrhea among infants. The GI tract of most warm-blooded animals is colonized by E. coli within hours or a few days after birth. The bacterium is ingested in foods or water or obtained directly from other individuals handling the infant. The human bowel is usually colonized within 40 hours of birth. E. coli can adhere to the mucus overlying the large intestine. Once established, an E. coli strain may persist for months or years. Resident strains shift over a long period (weeks to months), and more rapidly after enteric infection or antimicrobial chemotherapy that perturbs the normal flora. The entire DNA base sequence of the E. c oli genome has been known since 1997. E. coli normally lives inside your intestines, where it helps the body to break down and digest the food. Unfortunately, certain types of E. coli can get from the intestines into the blood. This is a rare illness, but it can cause a very serious infection. Someone who has E. coli infection may have these symptoms: bad stomach cramps and belly pain vomiting diarrhea, sometimes with blood in it One very bad strain of E. coli was found in fresh spinach in 2006 and some fast-food hamburgers in 1993. Beef can contain E. coli because the bacteria often infect cattle. It can be in meat that comes from cattle and its also in their poop, called manure. E. coli is a consistent inhabitant of the human intestinal tract, and it is the predominant facultative organism in the human GI tract; however, it makes up a very small proportion of the total bacterial content. The anaerobic Bacteroides species in the bowel outnumber E. coli by at least 20:1. However, the regular presence of E. coli in the human intestine and feces has led to tracking the bacterium in nature as an indicator of fecal pollution and water contamination. As such, it is taken to mean that, wherever E. coli is found, there may be fecal contamination by intestinal parasites of humans. Physiologically, E. coli is versatile and well-adapted to its characteristic habitats. It can grow in media with glucose as the only organic constituent. Wild-type E. coli has no growth factor requirements, and metabolically it can transform glucose into all of the macromolecular components that make up the cell. The bacterium can grow in the presence or absence of O2. Under anaerobic condit ions it will grow by means of fermentation, producing characteristic mixed acids and gas as end products. However, it can also grow by means of anaerobic respiration, since it is able to utilize NO3, NO2 as final electron acceptors for respiratory electron transport processes. In part, this adapts E. coli to its intestinal (anaerobic) and its extra intestinal (aerobic or anaerobic) habitats. E. coli can respond to environmental signals such as chemicals, pH, temperature, osmolarity. Therefore, in a number of very remarkable ways considering it is a unicellular organism. For example, it can sense the presence or absence of chemicals and gases in its environment and swim towards or away from them. It can stop swimming and grow fimbriae that will specifically attach it to a cell or surface receptor. In response to change in temperature and osmolarity, it can vary the pore diameter of its outer membrane to accommodate larger molecules (nutrients) or to exclude inhibitory substances. With its complex mechanisms for regulation of metabolism the bacterium can survey the chemical contents in its environment in advance of synthesizing any enzymes that metabolize these compounds. It does not wastefully produce enzymes for degradation of carbon sources unless they are available, and it does not produce enzymes for synthesis of metabolites if they are available as nutrients in the e nvironment. Figures 1.1 1.2: Escherichia coli Staphylococcus aureus Figure 1.3: Electron micrograph of Staphylococcus aureus The Staphylococci Staphylococci (staph) are Gram-positive spherical bacteria that occur in microscopic clusters resembling grapes. Bacteriological culture of the nose and skin of normal humans invariably yields staphylococci. In 1884, Rosenbach described the two pigmented colony types of staphylococci and proposed the appropriate nomenclature: Staphylococcus aureus (yellow) and Staphylococcus albus (white). The latter species is now named Staphylococcus epidermidis. Although more than 20 species of Staphylococcus are described in Bergeys Manual (2001), only Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis are significant in their interactions with humans. S. aureus colonizes mainly the nasal passages, but it may be found regularly in most other anatomical locales, including the skin, oral cavity and gastrointestinal tract. S epidermidis is an inhabitant of the skin. Taxonomically, the genus Staphylococcus is in the Bacterial family Staphylococcaceae, which includes three lesser known genera, Gamella, Macrococcus and Salinicoccus. The best-known of its nearby phylogenetic relatives are the members of the genus Bacillus in the family Bacillaceae, which is on the same level as the family Staphylococcaceae. The Listeriaceae are also a nearby family. Staphylococcus aureus forms a fairly large yellow colony on rich medium; S. epidermidis has a relatively small white colony. S. aureus is often hemolytic on blood agar; S. epidermidis is non hemolytic. Staphylococci are facultative anaerobes that grow by aerobic respiration or by fermentation that yields principally lactic acid. The bacteria are catalase-positive and oxidase-negative. S. aureus can grow at a temperature range of 15 to 45 degrees and at NaCl concentrations as high as 15 percent. Nearly all strains of S. aureus produce the enzyme coagulase: nearly all strains of S. epidermidis lack this enzyme. S. aureus should always be considered a potential pathogen; most strains of S. epidermidis are non-pathogenic and may even play a protective role in humans as normal flora. Staphylococcus epidermidis may be a pathogen in the hospital environment. Staphylococci are perfectly spherical cells about 1 micrometer in diameter. The staphylococci grow in clusters because the cells divide successively in three perpendicular planes with the sister cells remaining attached to one another following each successive division. Since the exact point of attachment of sister cells may not be within the divisional plane and the cells may change position slightly while remaining attached, the result is formation of an irregular cluster of cells. The shape and configuration of the Gram-positive cocci helps to distinguish staphylococci from streptococci. Streptococci are slightly oblong cells that usually grow in chains because they divide in one plane only, similar to a bacillus. Without a microscope, the catalase test is important in distinguishing streptococci (catalase-negative) from staphylococci, which are vigorous catalase-producers. The test is performed by adding 3% hydrogen peroxide to a colony on an agar plate or slant. Catalase-positive cultures produce O2 and bubble at once. The test should not be done on blood agar because blood itself contains catalase. Figure 1.4: Gram stain of Staphylococcus aureus in pustular exudate Figure 1.5: Staphylococcus aureus Problem statement: Which antibiotic is most effective on bacteria? Hypothesis: Different antibiotics have different effect on bacteria. Ampicillin is the most effective antibiotic against Escherichia Coli and Staphylococcus aureus compared to other antibiotics. Variables: Manipulated Variable: Types of antibiotics and types of bacteria. Responding Variable: The diameter of clear zone around the paper discs. Fixed Variable: Surrounding temperature, humidity, light intensity, size of paper discs. Apparatus: Agar plate, Bunsen burner, marker pen, autoclaved forceps. Materials: Bacteria E. coli, bacteria S. aureus, bench spray of disinfectant, 1% Virkon, soap and dettol, paper towels, antibiotic- impregnated paper disc, adhesive tape. Procedure: Hands are washed with dettol handwash. Disinfectant spray is sprayed thoroughly to the working area. Paper towels are then used to wipe the working area. Two sterile Petri dishes are labeled correctly. One is filled with the bacteria S. aureus and another one with E. coli. The label is pasted at the side of the Petri dishes. The apparatus needed: bottle containing sterile nutrient agar, micropipette with sterile tips, Bunsen burner, bottle containing bacteria cultures and sterile Petri dishes labeled correctly. 200ml of E. coli bacteria culture is pipetted into a sterile Petri dish beside a burning Bunsen burner. Molten agar is poured into the Petri dish until the bottom of the Petri dish is covered by the agar. The Petri dish is then covered and gently pushed back and forth and in all four directions to mix the bacteria well with the agar. The agar is then allowed to set. Steps 4 to7 are repeated for S. aureus. The 2 Petri dishes containing the agar lawn are allowed to set. One paper disc is placed in a solution of antibiotics named Ampicillin using sterile forceps. The paper disc is then soaked into Petri dish containing the agar. Steps 10- 11 are repeated for antibiotics Tetracyclin, Carbenicillin, and sterilized distilled water. The Petri dish is closed and the bottom of the Petri dish is labeled to identify the position of each paper disc. The agar plates are then left in 30.0 0C incubator for 24 hours. Hands are washed thoroughly again after working with the bacteria culture. After 24 hours, the agar plates are observed with the Petri dishes closed. The diameter of the clear region around the paper discs are measured and recorded. The results are recorded in a table Precautions: The bacteria must be pipetted into the agar before the agar is set so that the bacteria can mix well with it. During observation, the lid of the Petri dishes must not be lifted up as the bacteria are harmful to our healths. After working with the bacteria culture, hands must be washed with disinfectant in order to avoid any infections. Result: Antibiotics Diameter of the clear zone, cm Escherichia coli Staphylococcus aureus Ampicillin 3.2 3.0 Tetracycline 2.3 2.7 Carbenicillin 1.3 2.8 Distilled water 0.5 0.5 Discussions: Analysis of data From the result, it is found that the largest inhibition zone or clear region is formed around the paper disc soaked in Ampicillin for E. coli bacteria lawn, followed closely by Tetracyclin and Carbenicillin. Ampicillins paper disc caused the largest area of inhibition zone in E. coli. This showed that Ampicillin is most effective in inhibiting the growth of the E. coli. Meanwhile, Carbenicillins paper disc which caused the smallest area of inhibition zone in E. coli showed that it is the weakest antibiotic against E. coli. Similarly, Ampicillin is also the most effective antibiotic against bacteria Staphylococcus aureus as the area of inhibition zone around the paper disc soaked with Ampicillin solution is the greatest, which has a diameter of 3.0 cm. Followed by that is the antibiotic Carbenicillin and the least effective antibiotic is Tetracyclin which has a slightly smaller diameter of clear zone than Cabenicillin, which is 2.7cm. Therefore, it can be concluded that Ampicillin is the most effective antibiotic against both type of bacteria and being the broad spectrum antibiotic while the effectiveness of Tetracyclin and Carbenicillin towards both bacteria varied. This showed that different antibiotic has different effect on different bacteria as well. The inhibition zones are all circular. If it is not circular, it is sensible that the diameter should be measured by using two points which are furthest from each other within the clear region. The diameter of the inhibition zones is affected by the strength of antimicrobial properties of the antibiotics towards different bacteria. It is important not to always choose the antibiotic with the largest inhibition zone to treat the patients as some other factors should be considered as well such as the side effect caused by the antibiotics, the conditions of the patients and the risk of that particular antibiotics. Control In this experiment, the control used is the sterilized distilled water. Paper discs soaked in sterilized distilled water are also put in two of the Petri dishes. This is to show that the sterilized distilled water has no effect on the bacteria. This enables us to compare the results for paper discs with the antibiotics and those with the distilled water to show that the formation of the inhibition zone or the clear region is due to the antibiotics but not because of the presence of water. In this case, clear region cannot be seen around the paper disc soaked in sterilized distilled water in both Petri dishes. Therefore, the presence of clear region around other paper discs must be due to the antimicrobial property of the antibiotics. Variables Three different antibiotics are used in this experiment to manipulate the types of antibiotics and to compare the effectiveness of each antibiotic to inhibit the growth of the bacteria. The antibiotics used are Tetracycline, Carbenicillin and Ampicillin. Two different types of bacteria, E. coli and S. aureus are manipulated by putting them in different Petri dishes with the agar medium. This enables us to identify the varying antimicrobial properties of the same antibiotics on different types of bacteria. The responding variable in this experiment is the diameter of the clear region around the paper discs after 24 hours. The greater the diameter of the clear zone around the paper discs, that means the more effective the antibiotic inhibiting the growth of the bacteria. The diameter of the clear zone can be measured from one point of the circular clear region to another point through the centre point by using a ruler. The amount of different bacteria cultures used must be the same by pipetting equal amount of the two bacteria, which is 200 ml into the agar medium. The temperature, humidity and light intensity must also be kept constant throughout the experiment. All these factors may affect the rate of growth of the bacteria. This can be done by placing the two agar plates into an incubator at 30 0 C. The size of the paper discs should also be kept constant. Paper discs which are larger will absorb more antibiotics and may lead to a greater diameter of clear zone compared to the smaller paper discs in the same bacteria culture. This is done by preparing the paper discs using the same puncher to ensure all the paper discs are of the same size. Justification of apparatus and materials In this experiment, the antibiotics used are Tetracycline, Streptomycin and Carbenicillin solutions. These antibiotics are more common antibiotics which are more easily available. The antibiotics have already been prepared in solutions form. This enables the paper discs to be soaked in the solutions directly and easier. The bacteria used are S. aureus and E. coli, they are practically easier to be grown and culture in agar plates. However, these two bacteria may be harmful to our health, therefore the lids of the agar plates are not allowed to be opened during observation. This is to keep us from getting any infections from these bacteria. Bunsen burner is used in this experiment to minimize the contamination of the experimental sets while preparing them. For example, the forceps are being flamed before being used to pick up the paper discs soaked in the antibiotics solutions. Micropipette is used to transfer the 200 ml bacteria into the agar medium. The used of micropipette with sterile tips further improved the accuracy of the result. Validity and reliability of the results According to the result from another group, Ampicillin is the most effective antibiotic towards only E. coli bacteria. Cabernicillin is most effective towards S. aerues and this is different from the result of my group. This may properly cause by contamination which affect the accuracy of the result. However, for the bacteria E. coli, the diameter of clear zone caused by the paper disc soaked in Cabernicillin is 1.3 cm for my group while the result of another group showed no clear zone around it. Therefore, it can be concluded that Carbenicillin is the least effective antibiotics towards E. coli for two groups. Besides, in order to increase the reliability of the experiment, the variables are controlled carefully. The constant variables are kept constant while only manipulating the variables that are being studied. Sources of errors One possible source of errors may be the contamination of the agar medium. This occurred when saliva is accidentally being transferred to the agar during preparation. Another possible source of error could be the purity of the antibiotics used. Some of the antibiotics solutions may be contaminated by some impurities which could decrease their antibacterial properties. Also, human error can take place especially when measuring the diameter of the clear zones. Conclusion: The hypothesis is accepted. Different antibiotics have different effect on bacteria. Ampicillin is the most effective antibiotic against Escherichia Coli and Staphylococcus aureus compared to other antibiotics. Antibiotics are medicines that kill bacteria. Bacteria can cause infections such as strep throat, ear infections, urinary tract infections, and sinus infections (sinusitis). There are many types of antibiotics. Each works a little differently and acts on different types of bacteria. Dont antibiotics cure everything? Antibiotics are powerful medicines, but they cannot cure everything. Antibiotics do not work against illnesses that are caused by a virus. They do not help illnesses such as: Common colds. Influenza (flu). Most cases of acute bronchitis. Most sore throats not caused by strep. Runny noses. These illnesses usually go away by themselves. If you take antibiotics when you do not need them, they may not work when you do need them. Each time you take antibiotics, you are more likely to have some bacteria that the medicine does not kill. Over time these bacteria change (mutate) and become harder to kill. The antibiotics that used to kill them no longer work. These bacteria are called antibiotic-resistant bacteria. These tougher bacteria can cause longer and more serious infections. In order to treat them you may need different, stronger antibiotics that cost more. A stronger antibiotic may have more side effects than the first medicine. Antibiotic-resistant bacteria also can spread to family members, children, and friends. Your community then will have a risk of getting an infection that is harder to cure and costs more to treat. Some antibiotics that doctors once prescribed to treat common infections no longer work. Taking antibiotics you do not need will not help you feel better, cure your illness, or keep others from being infected. On the other hand, take them when unnecessary may cause harmful side effects. Those side effects include: Nausea. Diarrhea. Stomach pain. When antibiotics kill the normal bacteria in your intestine and allow the C.difficilebacteria to grow, this causes diarrhea, fever, and belly cramps. In some rare cases, it can even cause death. This condition is known as Clostridium difficilecolitis or C. difficile colitis which is the swelling and irritation of the large intestine, or colon. Women may develop vaginal yeast infections from taking antibiotics. Rarely, antibiotics can cause a dangerous allergic reaction that requires emergency care. The right way to take antibiotic: Take it exactly as directed. Always take the exact amount that the label says to take. If the label says to take the medicine at a certain time, follow these directions. Take it for as long as prescribed. After the first few days of taking the medicine, you might feel better. However, it is important to keep taking the antibiotic as directed and usually until it is finish. Full prescription is always needed to get rid of those bacteria that are a bit stronger and able to survive the first few days of treatment. Bacteria that an antibiotic cannot kill (antibiotic-resistant bacteria) can develop if only part of an antibiotic prescription is being taken. Most importantly, leftover medicine must not be saved for the purpose of future use. Antibiotics are usually safe despites of all the side effects. Common side effects include nausea, diarrhea, and stomach pain. In women, antibiotics can lead to vaginal yeast infections. Some minor side effects are inevitable. In rare cases, antibiotics can cause a dangerous allergic reaction that requires emergency care. Antibiotics are among the most frequently prescribed medications in modern medicine. Antibiotics cure disease by killing or injuring bacteria. After the first antibiotic, penicillin which was accidentally been discovered from a mold culture, there are now over 100 different antibiotics available to cure minor discomforts as well as life-threatening infections.Although antibiotics are useful in a wide variety of infections, it is important to realize that antibiotics only treat bacterial infections. Antibiotics are useless against viral infections such as the common cold and fungal infections ringworm. Types of Antibiotics Although there are well over 100 antibiotics, the majority come from only a few types of drugs. These are the main classes of antibiotics. Penicillins such as penicillin andamoxicillin Cephalosporins such as cephalexin(Keflex) Macrolides such as erythromycin (E-Mycin), clarithromycin (Biaxin), andazithromycin (Zithromax) Fluoroquinolones such as ciprofloxacin(Cipro), levofloxacin (Levaquin), andofloxacin (Floxin) Sulfonamides such as co-trimoxazole (Bactrim) and trimethoprim (Proloprim) Tetracyclines such as tetracycline (Sumycin, Panmycin) Aminoglycosides such as gentamicin (Garamycin) and tobramycin (Tobrex) The use of right antibiotic is crucial as each antibiotic cures only certain types of infections but not all. Also, a person may have allergies that eliminate a class of antibiotic from consideration, such as a penicillin allergy which should not prescribe amoxicillin. Other factors may be considered when choosing an antibiotic. Medication cost, dosing schedule, and common side effects are often taken into account. Patterns of infection in your community may be considered too. In some cases, laboratories may help to decide which antibiotic to be used. Special techniques such as Gram stains may help narrow down which species of bacteria is causing infection. This is because certain bacterial species will take a stain while the others will not. Cultures may also be obtained. In this technique, a bacterial sample from infection is allowed to grow in a laboratory. The way bacteria grow or what they look like when they grow can help to identify the bacterial species. Cultures may also be tested to determine antibiotic sensitivities. A sensitivity list is the roster of antibiotics that kill a particular bacterial type. This list can be used to double check that you are taking the right antibiotic. Escherichia coli E. coli is a common type of bacteria that can get into food, like beef and vegetables. E. coli is short for the medical term Escherichia coli. The strange thing about these bacteria and lots of other bacteria is that theyre not always harmful to you. Theodor Escherich first described E. coli in 1885, as Bacterium coli commune, which he isolated from the feces of newborns. It was later renamed Escherichia coli, and for many years the bacterium was simply considered to be a commensal organism of the large intestine. It was not until 1935 that a strain of E. coli was shown to be the cause of an outbreak of diarrhea among infants. The GI tract of most warm-blooded animals is colonized by E. coli within hours or a few days after birth. The bacterium is ingested in foods or water or obtained directly from other individuals handling the infant. The human bowel is usually colonized within 40 hours of birth. E. coli can adhere to the mucus overlying the large intestine. Once established, an E. coli strain may persist for months or years. Resident strains shift over a long period (weeks to months), and more rapidly after enteric infection or antimicrobial chemotherapy that perturbs the normal flora. The entire DNA base sequence of the E. c oli genome has been known since 1997. E. coli normally lives inside your intestines, where it helps the body to break down and digest the food. Unfortunately, certain types of E. coli can get from the intestine

Deinstitutionalization of the Mentally Ill

Deinstitutionalization of the Mentally Ill CheckPoint 1 According to the article by Jim Mann, from the Southwest Journal of Criminal Justice, (2012) he states how the involvement in the criminal justice system with mentally ill offenders was profoundly affected by the decision which resulted in large numbers of mental hospital patients returning to the community during the mid-1970s.The article states that after an examination of the characteristics of mental health courts was conducted, the consensus results indicated that with the release of mental health patients into a community came the increase in crime rates. The article I researched was very brief, but lead me in the direction of crime levels within the community. Once individuals were released from the institutions, crime rates statistically increased, according to the data provided by the Criminal Justice/Mental Health Consensus Project stated that crime jumped greatly over a period of time.People decided to try the event o f deinstitutionalization in an attempt to save money for both the hospitals as well as individuals. They believed that a prescription drug was and would be cheaper than the cost of twenty-four hour care within an institution. About this time era is when the development of psychiatric drugs started coming into the picture. Unfortunately, according to these statistics, crime levels did increase since the start of deinstitutionalization.My local community is fairly small, but for has a high crime rate for how small it is. We do have an institution here in town for the mentally ill, but the majority of the people that are here and have committed crimes and have done some serious issues due to being mentally ill, basically just get a slap on the hand. My community for the most part is great when it comes to helping people out with certain situations; however, our police department is horrible and lazy. THEY are the waste of money, not our institutions.Anyways, within my community, we do have a homeless shelter, where housing is provided for families, and we also have assistance groups for victims of domestic violence. We also have a family planning clinic that runs solely on donations and provides birth control as well as condoms at no cost. We also have low income clinics that help people and provide health care, dental care, and mental health at charges all based on an individual’s family size and income. Basically, my local community is great for helping people, except for our police department.

An Interview Of Mr. Connor s The Real Estate Market And...

The report is based on an interview of Mr. Dean Connor, CEO, Sun Life Financial, which addresses a major potential issue in the real estate market. The report shows the concern of Mr. Connor regarding the dynamic real estate market and its effects on the elder Canadians. According to Mr. Connor, the debts on the mortgage should be closed before retirement. The interest rates are apparently increasing and this would decrease the value of real estate business soon. And he is afraid that majority of the Canadians will be affected because most of their assets are tied up in the real estate market. The report concludes by giving a Sun Life Financial survey result which says that, 24% of Canadians are planning to use their home as the primary†¦show more content†¦The following sections discuss about the macro economic impact of the increasing real estate debt on: a. National income b. Consumption, and c. Savings functions of the citizen Effect on Consumption Improved standard of living is one of the major goals of the Macro Economics. And Canada has maintained equilibrium with the income level of its citizens. But with increase in debts, the citizens would not be able to spend. This affects the standard of living and impact the productivity of the individual. If the real estate market does decline, politicians and policy makers are hoping to be the prices level off gradually. An increased interest rate in the near future is predictable and this result in a decline in the real estate market. This includes external factors like an interest rate hike or decline in market that makes mortgage less affordable. In this scenario, the income is stable and the consumption is dynamic. The ability of the individual to spend decreases as there is a huge amount of debt associated with them. Effect on Savings Function The issue also affects the savings function of the citizen badly. Increasing debt reduces the ability of the individual to save for their future. Increasing debt and altered saving functions are the rising concerns in today’s world. Economic experts suggest that the debt payment should go parallel to the emergency and retirement savings. They also point out that having a house with minimal

Iraq And Afghanistan Veterans PTSD Problems - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 7 Words: 1951 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2019/04/15 Category Society Essay Level High school Tags: Veterans Essay Did you like this example? PTSD in Iraq and Afghanistan Veterans Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is defined as a mental health problem that some people develop after experiencing or witnessing a life-threatening event, like combat, a natural disaster, a car accident, or sexual assault (U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, 2018). The Armed Forces Health Surveillance Branch (AFHSB) uses the following criteria to define PTSD for surveillance purposes: Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Iraq And Afghanistan Veterans PTSD Problems" essay for you Create order One hospitalization with and of the defining diagnoses of PTSDin the first or second diagnostic position; or two outpatient medical encounters, within 180 days of each other, with any of the defining diagnoses of PTSD in the first or second diagnostic position; or one outpatient medical encounter in a psychiatric or mental health care specialty setting, identified by Medical Expense and Performance Reporting System (MEPRS) code BF, with the defining diagnosis of PTSD in the first or second diagnostic position (Armed Forces Health Surveillance Branch, 2014). Data for PTSD can be found through the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), as well as the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). In 2017, the VA listed the following U.S. PTSD statistics: Roughly 8 million adults (7-8% of the general U.S. population) suffer from PTSD in the U.S. Of the 50% of women experience at least one trauma in their life, only around 10% will develop PTSD; in men, around 60% experience a trauma but only 4% develop PTSD (VA, 2017). In 2017, the NIMH reported an estimated 3.6% of U.S. adults had PTSD in the past yearPTSD among adults was higher for females (5.2%) than for males (1.8%), and the lifetime prevalence of PTSD was 6.8% (NIMH, 2017) PTSD is not person characteristic specific. According to the NIMH, risk factors include: Living through dangerous events and traumas; getting hurt; seeing another person hurt, or seeing a dead body; childhood trauma; feeling horror, helplessness, or extreme fear; having little or no social support after the event; dealing with extra stress after the event, such as loss of a loved one, pain and injury, or loss of a job or home; and having a history of mental illness or substance abuse (NIMH, 2016). According to a report published by the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) in 2012, the total cost for healthcare provided to PTSD patients among combat veterans was $1,420,000,000 (p. 18). Though this writer was unable to find specific healthcare costs for veterans, one estimate states, the annual cost to society of anxiety disorders is estimated to be significantly over $42.3 billion, often due to misdiagnosis and under treatment. This includes psychiatric and non-psychiatric medical treatment costs, indirect workplace costs, mortality costs, and prescription drug costs (PTSD United, 2013). Specific morbidity and mortality rate was unable to be accessed by this writer due to not having clearance to access this data from the VA. PTSD does not discriminate based on rural versus urban populations. Descriptive Epidemiology PTSD can happen to anyone, at any age. PTSD does not discriminate between age, race, sex, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status. Koo, Herbenstreit, Madden, and Maguen (2016) present the following data in Table 1. According to the VA, experts estimate that up to 20% of Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) and Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF) veterans, up to 10% of Gulf War veterans, and up to 30% of Vietnam War veterans have experienced PTSD; Consequently, demand for PTSD treatment continues to grow. In the past year alone the number of diagnosed cases in the military jumped 50% and thats only the reported and diagnosed cases; 17% of combat troops are women; 71% of female military personnel develop PTSD due to sexual assault within the ranks (PTSD United, 2013). PTSD is not a place or time sensitive condition. It can happen anywhere, and at any time. This writer was unable to find statistics breaking PTSD down by time and place characteristics. Prevention Research on resilience factors for PTSD is ongoing. There are no set guidelines for preventing PTSD. The NIMH (2016) indicates some factors that may reduce the risk of PTSD including: Seeking out support from other people such as friends and family; finding a support group after a traumatic event; learning to feel good about ones own actions in the face of danger; having a positive coping strategy, or a way of getting through the bad event and learning from it; and being able to act and respond effectively despite feeling fear. A study published in Military Medicine in 2012, specifically targeting OEF/OIF/[Operation New Dawn]OND Service Members states, the risk of PTSD is heightened by female gender, divorce, exposure to family psychiatric illnesses, domestic violence, abuse, or violence before military induction, enlisted status, and diminished psychological or physical health before combat (Hermann, Shiner, Friedman, 2012, p. 2). Genetics may play a part in those with PTSD, but research is still being investigated. The length and number of deployments, perceived threat of danger, and greater combat exposure have all been associated with PTSD studies. Primary prevention efforts include early intervention, before the patient is exposed to the traumatic event. Primary prevention can also include pharmacological measures such as prophylactic propranolol administration, as well as, hydrocortisone administration in those with low cortisol levels. Another field-based finding was the acute (usually within 1-3 hours) administration of narcotic agents. It appeared to result in significantly lower rates of PTSD several months later than compared with nonadministration (Hermann et al., 2012, p. 3). Another primary prevention strategy is psychological debriefing. The Army has developed Battlemind stress management training (or Military Resilience Training), and the Navy and Marines have the Combat and Operational Stress Control (COSC) program. In the predeployment phase, Battlemind informs soldiers about what they are likely to encounter while deployed. In the postdeployment phase, Battlemind addresses safety concerns, relationship issues, normalized combat-related mental health reactions, and symptoms, in addition to providing guidance regarding signs that one should seek mental health support (Hourani, Council, Hubal, Strange, 2011, p. 727). The Battlemind training has been modified and now includes a postdeployment intervention, Battlemind Debriefing. This is a single session form of [psychological debriefing] PD administered within 2 weeks of returning from deployment and aimed at providing education, normalizing transition challenges, and encouraging social support (Hermann et al., 2012, p. 4). The COSC program enables a cohesive ready force and promotes long-term health and well being [sic] among Marines, attached Sailors, and their family members. The COSC program assists commanders, Marines and attached Sailors, in maintaining warfighting capabilities by preventing, identifying, and managing the impacts of combat and operation al stress on Marines and Sailors. (Milstead Jr., 2013). Another primary prevention method is predeployment coping skills and Stress Inoculation Training [SIT] approaches. The most widely acknowledged preventive approach relevant to military-related PTSD is stress inoculation training (SIT) SIT is an effective method of reducing arousal levels in response to powerful stressors by inoculating individuals to potentially traumatizing stressors (Hourani et al., 2013, p. 727). Secondary prevention methods include psychological debriefing through various methods such as postdeployment surveys, and medical questionnaires. There are multiple websites available that offer education and support including Health.mil, and the VA has the National Center for PTSD https://www.ptsd.va.gov/, and PTSDunited.org. Conclusion PTSD can affect anyone, anywhere, and at any time. It is not exclusive to a specific race, gender, or socioeconomic status. It is not strictly related to time spent in combat, and can affect non-military members as well. The military is conducting ongoing research to determine possible genetic causes for PTSD. One upstream social determinant is that until recently, PTSD wasnt recognized as a real disorder. After Vietnam it was called shell shock but it was still something that was not formally diagnosed or discussed. Mental health issues still carry a social stigma to this day, even regarding common conditions such as depression or anxiety. PTSD was once considered a psychological condition of combat veterans who were shocked by and unable to face their experiences on the battlefield. Soldiers with symptoms of PTSD often faced rejection by their military peers and were feared by society in general. Those with PTSD symptoms were often labeled as weak and removed from combat zones, or sometimes discharged from military service. (PTSD united, 2013) Veterans are often labeled as a hero, strong, fearless, invincible, and brave. These labels, though made with good intentions, may hinder the veteran from seeking psychological treatment. A hero might look weak in the eyes of society or even a fellow veteran. As shown in Table 2, those with PTSD may fear judgment and embarrassment at the idea that they cant handle it. This lack of support, and fear of judgment may cause them to avoid seeking treatment and continue trying to deal with it in their own way. Table 2: Barriers to seeking mental health services, 2006 and 2007 Factors that Affect the Decision to Seek Mental Health Treatment 2006 2007 I would be seen as weak 53 50 Members of my unit might have less confidence in me 51 45 My leaders would blame me for the problem 43 39 It would harm my career 34 29 It would be too embarrassing 37 34 Table 2: adapted from (National Council on Disability, 2009, p. 52) Fortunately, there are many online networks and support groups for people with PTSD, both civilian and military; as well as for family members of those with PTSD. This anonymous access lessens the potential fear of judgment and makes mental health more accessible to everyone. Telehealth counseling is a valuable resource for everyone, but especially those in rural areas who may not be able to make it to a therapist for frequent visits. As a Psychiatric Mental Health Nurse Practitioner, this writer wants to specialize in treating veterans with PTSD. This writer will start by having the patient fill out questionnaires or screening tools regarding their combat history. Upon analysis, it will be determined, between the patient and this writer, how best to treat their symptoms. Medications, therapy, and mindfulness will all be discussed. This writer will also look into Telehealth counseling as well. If the patient cannot come to therapy, therapy will come to them. References Armed Forces Health Surveillance Branch. (2014, May). Surveillance case definitions post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Retrieved from Health.mil: https://www.health.mil/Reference-Center/Publications/2014/05/01/PTSD Congressional Budget Office. (2012, February 9). The Veterans Health Administrations treatment of PTSD and traumatic brain injury among recent combat veterans. Retrieved from Congressional Budget Office: https://www.cbo.gov/sites/default/files/cbofiles/attachments/02-09-PTSD.pdf Hermann, B. A., Shiner, B., Friedman, M. J. (2012). Epidemiology and prevention of combat-related post-traumatic stress in OEF/OIF/OND service members. Military Medicine, 177, 1-6. Hourani, L. L., Council, C. L., Hubal, R. C., Strange, L. B. (2011, July). Approaches to the primary prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder in the military: A review of the stress control literature. Military Medicine, 176, 721-730. Koo, K. H., Hebenstreit, C. L., Madden, E., Maguen, S. (2016). PTSD detection and symptom presentation: Racial/ethnic differences by gender among veterans with PTSD returning from Iraq and Afghanistan. Journal of Affective Disorders, 189, 10-16. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.08.038 Milstead Jr., R. E. (2013, February 22). Publications. Retrieved from Marines: https://www.marines.mil/Portals/59/Publications/MCO%205351.1.pdf National Council on Disability [NCD]. (2009). Invisible wounds: Serving service members and veterans with PTSD and TBI. Retrieved from https://ncd.gov/rawmedia_repository/veterans.pdf National Institute of Mental Health. (2016, February). Post-traumatic stress disorder. Retrieved from National Institute of Mental Health: https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd/index.shtml National Institute of Mental Health. (2017, November). Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) Statistics. Retrieved from National Institute of Mental Health: https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd.shtml#part_155467 PTSD United. (2013). PTSD statistics. Retrieved from PTSD United: https://www.ptsdunited.org/ptsd-statistics-2/ U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs. (2017, December 14). PTSD: By the numbers. Retrieved from Make The Connection: https://maketheconnection.net/whats-new/ptsd-statistics U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs. (2018, September 27). PTSD: National Center for PTSD PTSD Basics. Retrieved from U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs: https://www.ptsd.va.gov/understand/what/ptsd_basics.asp